STRESS, TRAUMA, AND POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER

Abstract

Stress is an inevitable aspect of life, but when intense or prolonged, it can disrupt psychological and physiological functioning, increasing vulnerability to trauma-related disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Stress involves adaptive responses to perceived demands, whereas trauma refers to exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence. Chronic stress contributes to allostatic load and dysregulation of the hypothalamic –pituitary - adrenal axis, while trauma alters key brain regions including the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus. PTSD is characterized by intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and hyperarousal persisting beyond one month, with significant functional impairment. Risk and protective factors influence individual outcomes despite high trauma prevalence. Evidence-based treatments particularly trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy, prolonged exposure, and EMDR demonstrate strong efficacy, with pharmacotherapy as adjunctive support. A biopsychosocial and lifespan perspective is essential for prevention, early identification, and effective intervention.